Arsh Mishra (1) (1) The Doon School, Dehradun Heavy metal water source contamination is an emerging ecological and public health issue because of rising industrial effluent, municipal refuse, and agricultural runoff. Traditionally employed remediation techniques are costly and generate chemical residues, so there has been a drive for finding sustainable and cost-saving remedies. Phytoremediation, or the employment of plants for contaminant removal and immobilisation, is an attractive option. This study examines the phytoremediation potential of Eichhornia crassipes, or Water Hyacinth, a notorious hyperaccumulator plant, in decreasing dissolved levels of calcium (Ca²⁺), iron (Fe²⁺), and lead (Pb²⁺) from artificially contaminated water samples for eight days. 12 plants were utilised in three sets of four plants each, and each set was subjected to one of the metal salts. Each of the plants was placed in a 3-litre water container. Initially, there was a 250 ppm concentration of each salt. One plant per batch was sampled, and titration was carried out every two days to examine metal ion content under laboratory conditions. EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) titration was the method used exclusively for determining the concentration of metal ions. Eriochrome Black T pH 10 was an indicator employed in titrating calcium, whereas Xylenol Orange pH 5 was employed in titrating iron and lead content. The outcome of the titration indicated that the concentrations of all three metal ions reduced consistently and considerably with respect to time. The initial concentrations of the three metal ions were 250 ppm. However, the titration capacity of lead dropped to 1.5 mL or 124 ppm, iron to 2.6 mL or 58 ppm, and calcium to 1.4 mL or 22 ppm, which shows a final overall drop of about 50%, 77%, and 91%, respectively, in the three samples. The control samples (3-litre salt solutions without the plant) showed negligible change, proving that the decrease came about through uptake by Eichhornia crassipes. These findings verify the potential phytoremediation capacity of water hyacinth and indicate its viability as a low-cost and environmentally friendly treatment for heavy metal ion stripping from dirty water. Relying entirely on EDTA titration—a low-cost, eco-compatible chemical technique—this study provides direct evidence of metal accumulation and presents a practical path to environmentally benign water treatment technologies, especially in less developed environments. Keywords: Phytoremediation, Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth), Hyperaccumulator, Water contamination / Wastewater treatment Article Type: Original Research

We are glad to announce that Isabella has won the annual YSJ Poster competition. Read a bit more about her and see her poster below! My name is Isabella Furness and I’m a 6th form student at Denstone College. I study Biology, Chemistry and Mathematics at A level and my ambition is to study Medicine at University and to become a doctor. I was first fascinated by graphene and its “wonder” properties when I was 12. My particular interest is in the applications of graphene and graphene-based materials in medicine, which has consequently inspired my project. I was interested to investigate if graphene/graphite has stain reduction properties which could be researched further and potentially applied in medicine/dentistry. Congratulations!

Chilal Izem (1) (1) Axion This article mainly focuses on the relationship between Vitamin D and sunlight exposure and further investigates Vitamin D deficiency, its causes, and its impacts on human well-being. Furthermore, it discusses the surprising prevalence of this deficiency in areas with abundant daylight, a phenomenon referred to as the “Vitamin D Paradox”. Despite being a widely acknowledged fact that people who live in areas with a lot of sun exposure have high levels of Vitamin D, recent research has proven that Vitamin D deficiencies are more prevalent in these areas. Keywords: Vitamin D paradox, Vitamin D deficiency, Hypovitaminosis D, UVB Radiation Article Type: Review Article

Lorraine Yin (1) (1) El Camino High School This article mainly focuses on the relationship between Vitamin D and sunlight exposure and further investigates Vitamin D deficiency, its causes, and its impacts on human well-being. Furthermore, it discusses the surprising prevalence of this deficiency in areas with abundant daylight, a phenomenon referred to as the “Vitamin D Paradox”. Despite being a widely acknowledged fact that people who live in areas with a lot of sun exposure have high levels of Vitamin D, recent research has proven that Vitamin D deficiencies are more prevalent in these areas. Keywords: DNA origami biosensor, DNA hydrogel biocompatible, PEGDA macroporous hydrogel, DNA nanotechnology drug delivery, aptamer hydrogel biosensing Article Type: Review Article

Catherine Philip (1) (1) Carrollwood Day School in Tampa, Florida In today’s modern society, the use of technology has become seemingly ubiquitous due to its increasing capabilities for personal and professional usage and convenience. Although these technological advancements are beneficial for people, an increase in technology usage results in an increase in blue light exposure. The effects of blue light exposure are often more apparent compared to a typical exposure to sunlight as people spend an extensive amount of time looking at screens from electronic devices. Exposure to blue light radiation has both short-term and long-term health impacts. In the short-term, too much blue light radiation can affect our biological circadian rhythm and can cause computer vision syndrome. When considering long-term effects, blue light radiation can damage retinal cells, corneal, and conjunctive epithelial cells, and cause permanent vision problems such as age-related macular degeneration. It can also contribute to cataracts and eye cancer. However, even with the aforementioned disadvantages, there are also some advantages to blue light radiation. Blue-light exposure can elevate energetic arousal (which decreases fatigue), enhance performance on cognition tasks, synchronize the human circadian rhythm, and improve mood. The presence of blue light can be both consequential and beneficial for humans, so it is imperative to seek solutions that can mitigate the consequences to receive the positive aspects. Keywords: blue light health effects, computer vision syndrome, circadian rhythm blue light, age-related macular degeneration blue light, blue light screen exposure Article Type: Review Article

Prasha Maskey (1) (1) St. Xavier’s College, Loyola Campus — Kathmandu, Nepal Toluene is an extensively used solvent for chemical synthesis and pharmaceutical production. In spite of its abundant use, the dynamics of its bimolecular interactions remain insufficiently characterised in scientific literature. In this study, GROMACS was employed to investigate collision dynamics between two molecules of toluene to identify energy exchange mechanisms. This draws a simple analogy to high-energy particle physics, specifically particle accelerators, where particles are accelerated to probe forceful collisions in order to understand energy exchange mechanisms. The simulation included energy minimisation, NVT equilibration and MD runs. The system reached the target temperature of 298 K and remained stable throughout the equilibration process. Analysis of distance graphs revealed that the centre-of-mass distance became stable at approximately 3.8 nm and the minimum atomic separation at about 3.2 nm, meaning under these specific experimental conditions, no direct collision occurs between two toluene molecules. These results demonstrate that toluene-toluene interactions exist in a dynamic equilibrium governed by van der Waals forces, and no stable aggregate is formed upon interaction. Keywords: molecular dynamics simulation, GROMACS simulation, toluene-toluene interaction, van der Waals forces molecular simulation, computational chemistry Article Type: Original Research

Bernardo Dal Molin(1) (1) Pan American School of Porto Alegre This paper provides a comprehensive review of the ethical implications surrounding the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into the music industry. It addresses the consequential drawbacks of AI use by highlighting the concerns regarding ownership rights that arise through its replicating ability, perpetuated by the lack of set standards. The literature review also examines the emerging possibilities that accompany the increased use of the technology, meanwhile, also analyzing its dilemmas regarding artist’s control and originality. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of setting universal standards to mitigate the ethical challenges posed by artificial intelligence in music production, balancing its potential benefits with ethical considerations. Keywords: Artificial intelligence, music industry, copyright regulation, deep fakes, ownership rights. Article Type: Review Article

Shaunak Joshi (1) (1) Flame University Cassini-Huygens was an ambitious joint mission to Saturn with the goal of exploring the planet and its moons. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the Indian national space agency with a large capacity for future innovation and contribution. This article collaboration, duration, and manoeuvring as aspects in which ISRO can improve by learning from the example set by Cassini-Huygens. Cassini offers many insights into international space collaboration. It is a testament to how building for redundancy and having a focused team can increase the lifespan of a mission. Cassini-Huygens followed an intricate route in order to complete its mission while staying safe. These points are compared to corresponding mission examples undertaken by ISRO, in order to determine where improvements can be made. Keywords: Cassini-Huygens, international collaboration, mission longevity, gravity-assist manoeuvring, ISRO interplanetary ambitions Article Type: Review Article

Arush Singhania (1) (1) Student, Saint Stephen's Episcopal School, Bradenton, FL This study examines real-time computer vision models for detecting and tracking player and ball movements in tennis matches under varying conditions, including changes in lighting, camera angles, occlusion, and motion blur. Accurate detection and tracking are essential for performance analytics, automated broadcasting, and sports officiating. The proposed Real-Time Tennis Analytics System (TAS) integrates YOLOv8 with motion tracking frameworks such as SORT and DeepSORT to achieve high accuracy and low latency match analysis. YOLOv8 detects players, the ball, and court lines, while a motion analysis module computes player trajectories, shot speeds, rally durations, and positional patterns. Models are trained on diverse professional and synthetic match footage annotated with player and ball positions. Performance is evaluated using precision, recall, Multiple Object Tracking Accuracy (MOTA), and Frames Per Second (FPS). TAS achieves high accuracy under stable lighting and camera conditions, though reliability decreases during high-speed rallies, shadowed courts, or low-resolution footage. The study highlights trade-offs between model complexity and responsiveness and proposes adaptive data augmentation and temporal smoothing to improve robustness. Overall, TAS shows that combining YOLOv8 detection with motion analytics provides real-time insights for coaches, analysts, and broadcasters, supporting data-driven decisions in tennis and other racket sports. Keywords: YOLOv8; Tennis Analytics; Object Detection; Motion Tracking; Computer Vision; Sports AI Article Type: Original Research

Jimin Ryu (1) (1) Frankfurt International School (FIS) December 26th, 2025 Animal agriculture, or the act of raising livestock for food, is a thorny ethical issue. From a philosophical standpoint, this topic intersects the spheres of ethical philosophy, nutritional necessity, and ecological sustainability. This literature review examines the ethical complexities and moral tensions surrounding animal husbandry by drawing on relational ethics, welfare science, and life comparative account frameworks to assess the obligations humans hold toward domesticated animals. While abolitionist perspectives advocate for a complete termination of animal husbandry, this review argues that reform—rather than complete abolition—offers a more coherent and moral response. Acknowledging the co-evolutionary interdependence between humans and livestock, the paper promotes the reduction of suffering through improved welfare standards. This paper also synthesizes evidence on the irreplaceable nutritional role of animal products in promoting cognitive development for vulnerable populations, alongside animal products’ role in ecological stability. Furthermore, the paper explores the ecological and social risks of removing livestock systems, highlighting both global market dependence and the potential for sustainable, small-scale alternatives. Ultimately, this review argues that cultivating systems of principled stewardship, reciprocal care, and sustainable coexistence provides the most ethically consistent and practically sustainable way forward for how humans and animals can seek a peaceful, actionable, and mutually-beneficial coexistence. Key-words: Animal welfare, Relational ethics, Agricultural reform, Nutritional necessity Article Type: Review Article

Author: Yoonwan Nam Editor: Avighna Daruka

Editor Assigned: Avighna Daruka

Editor Assigned: Avighna Daruka

Author: Kaitlyn Recchiuti

Author: Dhanashri Karry   Abstract This analysis explores the critical role of resource allocation in addressing disparities and fostering balanced development between urban centres and rural regions in India, focusing on Mumbai and Bihar. Mumbai, a major urban hub, benefits from substantial investments in healthcare, education, and infrastructure, while Bihar, a predominantly rural state, struggles with inadequate facilities and limited access to basic services. Key findings reveal significant disparities in healthcare access, education quality, and infrastructure development. The study highlights the need for targeted policies and strategic investments to address the unique challenges of both urban and rural areas, aiming to improve living conditions, healthcare access, and socio-economic opportunities for all residents. By focusing on sustainable development and inclusive policies, it is possible to enhance the quality of life and ensure equitable resource distribution across India. Biography Dhanashri Karry is a 10th grader who attends Woodbridge Academy Magnet School. She is deeply interested in the topic of resource allocation disparities between Mumbai and Bihar, two regions in the country of India. This is because medical ethics itself is one of Dhanashri’s keen interests and the contrast between resource allocation between rural and urban areas fueled her determination to explore and address these inequities. In her free time, she likes to run long distances, hike, and practice singing Carnatic music.     Introduction Resource partitioning, or the distribution of resources among various regions and populations, is crucial for balanced development and addressing disparities. The stark contrast between urban centres like Mumbai and rural regions like Bihar in India shows the challenges and complexities involved in resource allocation. Examining how resources are distributed and utilised in these areas provides valuable insights into broader socio-economic dynamics and persistent inequalities that affect millions [1] . In this analysis, we will delve into the various aspects of resource allocation in Mumbai and Bihar, exploring their impacts on healthcare, education, infrastructure, and overall quality of life.   Daily Life Struggles In Mumbai, daily life struggles are particularly acute in slum areas. The high cost of living forces many to reside in slums with poor living conditions, lacking basic amenities like clean water, sanitation, and electricity [2]. Pollution, including air and water quality, is a major concern, and rapid urbanisation has led to environmental degradation, affecting the quality of life. Residents  of slums face major obstacles to accessing basic services and amenities [3] . Women, especially in lower socioeconomic groups, face significant barriers in accessing education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. Gender-based violence and discrimination further exacerbate these challenges [4] . The high population density and rapid urbanisation have led to strain on infrastructure and resources, resulting in poor living conditions for many residents [4]. The disparity in living conditions between affluent areas and slums underscores the need for targeted policies and investments to address the unmet needs of the urban poor [5] . In Bihar, daily life struggles are primarily in rural areas, where inadequate infrastructure and services pose challenges to daily life. Traditional practices and social norms restrict women's access to education, healthcare, and employment. Gender-based violence is also a significant issue [6]. High poverty levels limit access to basic necessities like food, clean water, and healthcare. Many families struggle to afford even primary education for their children. Poor infrastructure and limited transportation options further restrict mobility and access to markets and services, which shows the need for targeted policies and investments to address these challenges [7].   Importance of Resource Allocation in Urban and Rural Areas Effective resource allocation is essential for sustainable development. Urban areas rely on it to support infrastructure, healthcare, education, and economic growth. Conversely, rural areas need resources to enhance agricultural productivity, healthcare, education, and connectivity. Disparities in resource allocation between urban and rural regions can lead to unequal growth, perpetuating poverty and limiting opportunities [8]. In urban centres like Mumbai, the focus is on maintaining and improving the complex infrastructure that supports its large population and economic activities. This includes investing in advanced healthcare facilities, efficient public transportation systems, and high-quality educational institutions [9]. The availability of these resources attracts businesses and skilled workers, driving further economic growth. However, the challenges of rapid urbanisation, such as traffic congestion, pollution, and housing shortages, necessitate continuous investment and planning [9]. In contrast, rural areas like Bihar face different challenges that require tailored resource allocation strategies. The primary focus in these areas is on improving agricultural productivity, ensuring access to basic healthcare and education, and developing infrastructure such as roads and electricity supply. The lack of investment in these critical areas can result in poor living standards, limited economic opportunities, and a cycle of poverty [10]. Effective resource allocation in rural areas is essential to improve the quality of life and create opportunities for sustainable development.   Overview of Population, Geographical, Social, Economic, and Traditional Aspects Mumbai, with a population exceeding 20 million, is one of the most densely populated cities globally [11 ;   12] . Located on India's west coast, it is a major port city with a coastal landscape. Mumbai is a melting pot of cultures, languages, and religions, hosting diverse communities from across India. Known as India's financial capital, it houses the Bombay Stock Exchange and numerous multinational corporations [13]. Its economy is driven by finance, entertainment, textiles, and commerce. Despite its modern outlook, Mumbai retains a rich cultural heritage with festivals, traditional markets, and historic landmarks. Mumbai’s population density is approximately 20,634 people per square kilometre, leading to significant strain on infrastructure and resources [12]. The city’s economy, driven by sectors such as finance, media, and entertainment, contributes substantially to India’s GDP [14]. The presence of major financial institutions, corporate headquarters, and the Bollywood film industry makes Mumbai a hub of economic activity. However, this economic prosperity coexists with stark disparities, as evidenced by the large slum populations living in areas like Dharavi, where living conditions are harsh and access to basic amenities is limited [15]. In contrast, Bihar has a population of over 100 million, with a lower population density compared to Mumbai, though still high by rural standards [16]. Situated in eastern India, Bihar is landlocked with a predominantly agrarian landscape, characterised by the fertile plains of the Ganges River. The state is socially diverse, with various caste groups and communities. Social stratification and traditional practices remain influential. Bihar’s economy is primarily agricultural, with rice, wheat, and maize as the main crops [17]. Industrialization is minimal, and the state has one of the lowest per capita incomes in India. Bihar also boasts a rich historical and cultural heritage, being home to ancient universities like Nalanda and significant religious sites [18]. Bihar’s population density is around 1,106 people per square kilometre, significantly lower than Mumbai but still dense for a largely rural state [19]. The state’s reliance on agriculture, which employs a significant portion of the population, points out the need for effective resource allocation to improve agricultural productivity and infrastructure [17]. The historical significance of sites like Nalanda University and Bodh Gaya adds a cultural dimension to Bihar’s identity, yet the state faces challenges in translating this heritage into economic growth and development.   Medical Access Both Mumbai and Bihar face many healthcare challenges due to the inadequate healthcare infrastructure and shortage of doctors and hospital beds. Mumbai boasts a higher number of doctors and hospital beds per capita compared to Bihar. The city has approximately 7 doctors per 1,000 people and around 1.3 hospital beds per 1,000 people [20 ; 21; 22]. Mumbai's healthcare infrastructure includes several renowned public hospitals such as KEM Hospital, Sion Hospital, and JJ Hospital, as well as numerous private hospitals and clinics offering specialised care. This extensive network of healthcare facilities provides a wide range of medical services, from primary care to advanced tertiary care [23]. Bihar, on the other hand, faces a severe shortage of healthcare professionals and facilities. The state has about 1 doctor for every 17,685 people and the number of hospital beds per 1,000 people is one of the lowest ratios in India [24 ; 25 ; 26]. This shortage is particularly acute in rural areas, where primary health centres are often understaffed and lack basic medical equipment. The limited availability of healthcare professionals and facilities significantly impacts the quality of care available to the population, leading to poor health outcomes and high mortality rates [27 ; 28 ; 29].   Resource comparisons Allocation of Resources in Mumbai Mumbai benefits from substantial resource allocation due to its economic importance. The healthcare system includes numerous public and private hospitals, specialised medical institutions, and healthcare facilities [30]. Despite this, high population density results in overcrowded hospitals and long waiting times. Significant investments in transportation include an extensive railway network, roads, and public transportation systems like buses and the metro. However, traffic congestion and pollution remain major issues [31]. Mumbai offers a wide range of educational institutions from primary schools to prestigious universities and technical institutes, attracting students from across India and abroad. Real estate in Mumbai is among the most expensive globally, with stark contrasts in living conditions, such as in slum areas like Dharavi, where many lack basic amenities [30 ; 32]. Mumbai’s healthcare infrastructure comprises both public and private sectors. The city hosts premier institutions like Tata Memorial Hospital and Sir J.J. Hospital, providing advanced medical care and attracting patients from across the country [30]. However, the demand for healthcare services far exceeds supply, leading to overcrowded facilities and long waiting times. Public healthcare centres often struggle with inadequate funding and resources, affecting the quality of care provided to the urban poor [30]. Transportation in Mumbai is characterised by an extensive suburban railway network, which is the lifeline of the city. The Mumbai Metro and Monorail projects aim to ease the burden on the railway system and reduce traffic congestion. Despite these efforts, traffic congestion remains a significant issue due to the high number of vehicles and inadequate road infrastructure [30 ; 33]. The city’s real estate market is among the most expensive globally, driven by high demand and limited space. This results in significant disparities in living conditions, with affluent areas boasting luxury apartments and slum areas facing overcrowded and unsanitary conditions [34]. Education in Mumbai is a mixed bag. The city is home to some of India’s most prestigious educational institutions, such as the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay and the University of Mumbai [35]. These institutions attract students from all over India and even abroad. However, there is also a significant disparity in the quality of education between private and public schools. Many public schools, especially those in slum areas, lack basic facilities and struggle with inadequate teaching staff and resources [36].   Allocation of Resources in Bihar Bihar’s resource allocation reflects its agrarian economy and developmental challenges. The state struggles with inadequate healthcare infrastructure, a shortage of medical professionals, and poorly equipped facilities, particularly in rural areas. While there have been improvements in road connectivity and electricity supply, overall infrastructure development lags behind more urbanised states. Rural areas often lack basic amenities like clean drinking water and sanitation. Despite progress in literacy rates, the quality of education remains a concern, with many schools lacking proper facilities and qualified teachers. Significant resources are allocated to agriculture, with schemes aimed at improving productivity and farmer welfare. However, frequent floods and droughts pose ongoing challenges [37]. The healthcare system in Bihar is characterised by a severe shortage of healthcare professionals and facilities. Rural areas rely heavily on primary health centres, which often lack the necessary equipment and staff to provide adequate care. The state faces a high burden of communicable diseases, maternal and child health issues, and malnutrition. The lack of healthcare infrastructure and medical personnel results in poor health outcomes and a high mortality rate [38]. Infrastructure development in Bihar has seen some progress, with improvements in road connectivity and electrification. However, many rural areas still lack basic amenities such as clean drinking water, sanitation, and a reliable electricity supply. The state’s education system faces significant challenges, with many schools lacking proper facilities and qualified teachers. Efforts to improve literacy rates have yielded some success, but the quality of education remains a concern, particularly in rural areas [39]. Agriculture is the backbone of Bihar’s economy, employing a significant portion of the population [37]. The state allocates substantial resources to agricultural development, with schemes aimed at improving productivity, irrigation, and farmer welfare. However, frequent natural disasters such as floods and droughts pose ongoing challenges, affecting agricultural output and livelihoods. The state’s economy remains largely agrarian, with limited industrialization and job opportunities, contributing to widespread poverty and underdevelopment [38].   Comparison of Healthcare Resource Allocation: Mumbai vs. Bihar In Mumbai, healthcare facilities are more advanced and numerous, featuring specialised hospitals, a higher number of healthcare professionals, and better medical technology [40]. However, the high population density leads to overcrowded facilities and unequal access to quality care, particularly for the poor [40]. In contrast, Bihar's healthcare system is severely under-resourced, with rural areas often relying on primary health centres that lack adequate equipment and staff [2]. The state faces a high burden of communicable diseases and maternal and child health issues. The lack of infrastructure and medical personnel results in poor healthcare outcomes compared to urban areas like Mumbai [2]. Mumbai’s healthcare system benefits from significant investment and advanced medical technology. The city hosts renowned institutions like Tata Memorial Hospital, known for its cancer treatment, and the Haffkine Institute, specialising in biomedical research. Private hospitals like Lilavati Hospital and Hinduja Hospital offer world-class medical care, attracting patients from across India and abroad. However, the public healthcare system faces significant challenges, with overcrowded hospitals and long waiting times [41]. The high cost of private healthcare services also limits access for low-income populations, leading to disparities in healthcare access and outcomes [42]. In contrast, Bihar’s healthcare system is characterised by a severe shortage of medical professionals and facilities. The state has one of the lowest doctor-to-patient ratios in India, with many rural areas relying on under-resourced primary health centres [24 ; 25]. The lack of infrastructure and medical personnel results in poor healthcare outcomes, with high rates of maternal and child mortality and a significant burden of communicable diseases [43 ; 44]. Efforts to improve healthcare infrastructure have been hampered by inadequate funding and logistical challenges, further exacerbating the disparities between urban and rural healthcare access.   State of Public Health Mumbai, with its diverse and dense population, faces unique public health challenges. The city's healthcare system is a blend of public and private sectors, offering a wide range of medical services. Public health initiatives in Mumbai have focused on combating infectious diseases, improving maternal and child health, and addressing lifestyle-related illnesses such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases [45]. Despite these efforts, the high population density and rapid urbanisation have led to overcrowded healthcare facilities and uneven access to services. In Bihar, public health challenges are primarily driven by inadequate infrastructure, limited resources, and high poverty levels. The state's public health system is underfunded and understaffed, struggling to meet the basic healthcare needs of its population [46]. Bihar has a high prevalence of communicable diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and diarrhoea, which are exacerbated by poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water. Maternal and child health indicators are also poor, with high rates of maternal and infant mortality [47 ; 48]. Demographics and Mortality Rates Mumbai's population of over 20 million includes a mix of age groups, socioeconomic statuses, and cultural backgrounds. The city has a relatively lower infant mortality rate (IMR) compared to the national average, thanks to better access to maternal and child healthcare services [49]. However, significant disparities exist, with slum areas experiencing higher mortality rates due to poor living conditions, malnutrition, and limited access to healthcare [49]. The life expectancy in Mumbai is relatively high, reflecting better healthcare access and living conditions for a substantial portion of the population [49]. In contrast, Bihar's population of over 100 million is predominantly young, with a significant proportion under the age of 15. The state's IMR is higher than the national average, reflecting substantial challenges in maternal and child healthcare [50]. Factors contributing to high mortality rates in Bihar include inadequate healthcare infrastructure, poor nutrition, high rates of infectious diseases, and lack of access to clean water and sanitation [50 ; 51 ; 52]. The state's life expectancy is lower compared to urban areas like Mumbai, indicating significant health disparities and poor living conditions [52]. Aging Demographics Mumbai's demographic profile includes a growing ageing population, necessitating increased healthcare resources and services for the elderly. The city has several specialised geriatric care centres and facilities catering to the needs of senior citizens [53]. However, the high cost of private healthcare services and limited availability of affordable public healthcare options pose challenges for low-income elderly residents. The demand for geriatric care is expected to rise as the population ages, highlighting the need for targeted healthcare policies and investments. In Bihar, the demographic profile is predominantly young, with a smaller proportion of elderly individuals compared to Mumbai. However, the state's healthcare infrastructure is ill-equipped to address the specific needs of the ageing population. There are limited geriatric care facilities, and the overall healthcare system struggles to provide adequate care for the elderly, who often face neglect and inadequate medical attention [54]. The focus of healthcare services in Bihar is primarily on maternal and child health, communicable diseases, and basic healthcare needs, leaving the ageing population underserved [55 ; 56]. Health Care Public vs. Private Healthcare Sectors Mumbai's healthcare system is characterised by a robust mix of public and private sectors. The public sector includes large hospitals such as KEM Hospital, Sion Hospital, and JJ Hospital, which provide affordable care to the city's low-income population [57]. Despite these facilities, the public sector is often overwhelmed by the high patient load, leading to overcrowded conditions and long waiting times. Public hospitals in Mumbai play a critical role in providing healthcare services to the city's vulnerable populations, including the residents of the slums and low-income groups [57]. The private sector in Mumbai is well-developed, with numerous hospitals and clinics offering advanced medical services and state-of-the-art technology. Hospitals like Lilavati, Hinduja, and Breach Candy provide high-quality care but are expensive, limiting access to affluent segments of the population [58]. The disparity between public and private healthcare services calls attention to the unequal access to quality healthcare in the city [58]. While the private sector offers advanced medical treatments and better patient amenities, it remains inaccessible to the majority of the population due to high costs. Bihar's healthcare system is predominantly public, with limited private sector presence. The public sector struggles with inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and a severe shortage of medical professionals. Primary health centres and district hospitals are the backbone of the state's healthcare system but often lack basic facilities and equipment [58]. The private sector is underdeveloped, with few private hospitals and clinics concentrated mainly in urban areas. This imbalance results in limited access to quality healthcare for the majority of Bihar's population, particularly in rural regions. Efforts to improve healthcare in Bihar often focus on strengthening the public healthcare system, but progress is slow due to systemic challenges and limited resources [59 ; 46 ; 43]. Healthcare Financing and Expenditure Healthcare financing and expenditure in Mumbai and Bihar reflect the broader economic disparities between the two regions. Mumbai, being a wealthy urban centre, benefits from higher public and private healthcare spending. The Maharashtra state government allocates a significant portion of its budget to healthcare, supporting public hospitals and healthcare programs. Additionally, the city's affluent population and corporate presence contribute to substantial private healthcare spending, enabling investments in advanced medical facilities and technologies [60]. Bihar, on the other hand, allocates a smaller portion of its budget to healthcare, reflecting the state's economic constraints and developmental challenges. The state's per capita healthcare expenditure is one of the lowest in India, resulting in underfunded public healthcare facilities and limited resources for healthcare programs. The central government's health schemes and funding provide some support, but the overall financing remains inadequate to meet the healthcare needs of the population [61]. In Mumbai, the combined public and private healthcare expenditure is significantly higher compared to Bihar. The city's advanced medical facilities, specialised hospitals, and availability of high-quality care reflect the substantial investments in healthcare. In contrast, Bihar's healthcare system struggles with limited funding, poor infrastructure, and inadequate resources, leading to significant disparities in healthcare access and outcomes between the two regions [60]. Unmet  Health Care Needs in Both Regions Both Mumbai and Bihar face significant unmet healthcare needs, albeit in different contexts. In Mumbai, despite the availability of advanced healthcare facilities, the high patient load leads to long waiting times and inadequate care for many [26]. People residing in slums and low-income groups face barriers to accessing quality healthcare due to overcrowded public hospitals and high costs of private healthcare. In Bihar, the lack of healthcare infrastructure and professionals results in poor health outcomes. Many rural residents travel long distances to access medical care, which is often unaffordable. The quality of education remains poor, with many schools lacking basic facilities. Higher education opportunities are limited, contributing to low literacy and skill levels [38]. Basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, and sanitation are inadequate in many areas. Frequent natural disasters exacerbate these challenges, disrupting daily life and economic activities [37]. Healthcare Policy and Strategic Initiatives To address the healthcare disparities between Mumbai and Bihar, it is crucial to implement targeted policies and strategic initiatives. In Mumbai, the focus should be on expanding public healthcare infrastructure, improving the quality of care in public hospitals, and ensuring affordable access to healthcare for all residents. Initiatives to reduce overcrowding in public hospitals, enhance primary healthcare services, and address environmental health concerns such as pollution are essential. Additionally, efforts to improve living conditions in slum areas, including access to clean water, sanitation, and affordable housing, are critical to addressing the broader determinants of health [62 ; 63]. In Bihar, targeted investments in healthcare infrastructure, medical training, and resource allocation are essential to improve healthcare access and outcomes. Strengthening primary healthcare services, expanding the availability of medical professionals in rural areas, and enhancing the quality of care in public hospitals are critical steps. Additionally, addressing the social determinants of health, such as poverty, education, and sanitation, is essential to improving overall health outcomes in the state. Strategic initiatives to enhance maternal and child health services, combat communicable diseases, and improve nutrition and sanitation are vital to addressing the state's healthcare challenges [63 ; 64 ; 65]. Conclusion The contrast between Mumbai and Bihar in terms of healthcare resource allocation represents the diverse challenges faced by urban and rural India. Mumbai's advanced healthcare infrastructure, higher number of medical professionals, and substantial investments in both public and private sectors provide better healthcare access and outcomes for its population [66]. However, disparities exist, particularly in slum areas where access to quality healthcare remains limited. Bihar, with its predominantly rural population, faces severe challenges in healthcare resource allocation. The state's inadequate healthcare infrastructure, shortage of medical professionals, and limited funding result in poor health outcomes and significant disparities in access to care [43]. Addressing these disparities requires targeted policies and investments that consider the unique needs and contexts of both regions. Efforts to improve healthcare in Mumbai should focus on enhancing public healthcare facilities, addressing overcrowding, and ensuring affordable access to quality care for all residents [67]. In Bihar, targeted investments in healthcare infrastructure, medical training, and resource allocation are essential to improve healthcare access and outcomes [68]. Additionally, strengthening public health programs, improving sanitation, and addressing malnutrition are critical to addressing the state's health challenges. Overall, bridging the healthcare resource gap between Mumbai and Bihar is essential for fostering balanced and inclusive development across India. By focusing on sustainable development, inclusive policies, and collaborative efforts, it is possible to enhance healthcare access and outcomes for millions of people, contributing to the overall progress and prosperity of the nation [69]. Ensuring equitable healthcare resource allocation and addressing the broader determinants of health are critical steps toward achieving health equity and improving the quality of life for all Indians.   Bibliography Chen, Yiyi, Zhou Yin, and Qiong Xie. “Suggestions to Ameliorate the Inequity in Urban/Rural Allocation of Healthcare Resources in China.” International Journal for Equity in Health 13, no. 1 (May 1, 2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-13-34 .   Wendt, Amanda S., Rob Stephenson, Melissa F. Young, Pankaj Verma, Sridhar Srikantiah, Amy Webb-Girard, Carol J. 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Author: Avighna Daruka

Author: Venus Burtea

Author: Daniel Seo

Author: Rithika Jamisetty

Author: Pooja Karthikeyan Introduction Since their emergence, AI technologies, particularly ChatGPT, have become commonplace in all aspects of our lives. Because of its incredible performance capabilities, this data-driven generative AI tool has been employed in various industries, including education, the workplace, entertainment, and others. However, it has limits. Because ChatGPT is trained on vast and publicly available data sets, it may be prone to stereotypes, factual errors, bias, or disinformation [12]. Bias in ChatGPT has been a challenge, particularly in highlighting or maintaining gender bias. Occupational gender bias has long existed in our society, with certain jobs stereotypically assigned to women and men. For example, stereotypically, female jobs include baby sisters, nurses, and receptionists, whereas male jobs include construction workers, electricians, and firefighters. Since ChatGPT and other AI tools are used to generate books, stories, and other content, these tools are in a unique position to influence gender discrimination that is already plaguing our society. Such perpetuation of gender bias can be disruptive and detrimental to our society [5]. Furthermore, occupational stereotypes can considerably influence children's capacity to make professional decisions. Children begin to believe in gender stereotypes at an early age. For example, research indicated that girls in third grade ranked themselves lower than boys in mathematics, even though their test results were identical [10]. As a result, it is critical to understand how consistently ChatGPT promotes gender stereotypes. ChatGPT has been repeatedly proven to reinforce or amplify gender stereotypes [3] [6] [8]. In their study of gender bias and stereotypes in large language models, Kotek et al. discovered that LLMs made biassed assumptions about men's and women's vocations, portraying doctors as males and nurses as women. Such gender bias was also evident in the recommendation letters generated by ChatGPT [6], which highlighted males in leadership positions and females in supportive roles. Even though there is a wide consensus towards the presence of gender bias in ChatGPT, there have been mixed findings on the degree of bias towards stereotypically male or female-dominated jobs. Spillner (2024) investigated gender prejudice in short stories generated by ChatGPT and discovered that the stereotypes about professions generated by ChatGPT outperformed the human occupational gender bias. Furthermore, they found substantial disparities in how gender preconceptions were enhanced for typically male and female occupations, particularly amplifying existing prejudices in female-dominated jobs. On the other hand, Babaei et al. (2024) explored gender bias by directly prompting names for female or male-dominated professions for a play. Even when the prompt was repeated many times, they found that the ChatGPT responses were gender-balanced and politically correct for the occupations they tested. One of the reasons for these mixed results may be due to the variability and reduced consistency associated with large language models like ChatGPT. Since the influence of ChatGPT in specific and generative AI, in general, is increasing exponentially, it is important to have an unambiguous understanding of their role in the perpetuation of gender bias. ChatGPT-3.5, the free version, is frequently shown to generate larger and less concise prompt responses [7]. Systematic studies on the consistency and uniformity of ChatGPT responses have shown that the outputs from ChatGPT can vary even when the same prompt is used [9] [13]. Moreover, ChatGPT 3.5 has been shown to have poor response consistency when compared to ChatGPT 4 [4]. Some amount of randomness and chaos is inevitable in the AI generative algorithms in large language models. However, such variations in the ChatGPT output can generate confusion in interpreting the findings and lead to inconclusive understanding. The present study aims to examine the consistency and repeatability of gender bias in ChatGPT prompts if and when it occurs. Methodology To investigate the gender bias in ChatGPT, 11 stereotypically male-dominated and 11 stereotypically female-dominated professions based on the published reports [2] [11] were selected. Consistency metrics reveal the stability of the model’s behaviour under repeated testing. The consistency of ChatGPT responses was assessed by measuring responses across multiple iterations of the same prompt. For each profession, ChatGPT 3.5 was instructed to describe the character and the personality traits. For example, the prompt “I am writing a story and the protagonist is a nurse. Describe the character and personality traits” was the input. A total of 22 prompts were presented each day. To evaluate the presence of bias with certainty and to ensure that the generated responses are not a random single phenomenon that could have occurred on a particular day for any number of reasons, the 22 ChatGPT prompts were presented continuously for 10 days. The order of the prompt queries was randomised to prevent standardised responses. The task was to evaluate if the stereotype related to the profession was held by the ChatGPT 3.5. If the ChatGPT held a stereotype (i.e., the protagonist with the male or female-dominated profession was addressed by he/him or she/her, respectively), then the response was assigned a rating of 1. If the stereotype was not held or if the protagonist was addressed by "they/them,” then the response was assigned a rating of 0. A repeated measures ANOVA was administered to evaluate gender stereotypes in ChatGPT responses for female vs. male-dominated professions across 10 days. Python program was used to conduct the statistical analysis. The initial step involved converting the list values into arrays, a process achieved using the Numpy function np. Array. The code used two essential libraries, Numpy and Scipy. Numpy facilitated the efficient manipulation of arrays, while Scipy provided an assortment of statistical functions. Results Gender bias in ChatGPT 3.5 responses was examined for 11 stereotypically feminine and 11 stereotypically male-dominated professions over 10 days. Gender bias was assessed by determining if a stereotype commonly associated with female- or male-dominated jobs is supported. A rating of 1 or 0 was given when the stereotype for each gender was held or not, respectively. A stark difference in the gender stereotyping of female and male-dominated professions in the ChatGPT responses emerged across different days. Figure 1 shows the gender stereotype held by ChatGPT 3.5 in percentage for stereotypically female-dominated professions (red) and male-dominated professions (blue) for the same prompt repeated for 10 days for each profession. The figure provided below shows that the gender stereotype for all female-dominated professions was held repeatedly for all 10 days. On the other hand, the presence or absence of gender tereotypes for male-dominated jobs varied across 10 days. When the presence or absence of gender stereotypes in ChatGPT responses was averaged over 10 days for female and male-dominated jobs, the stereotype was held 100% for female jobs and 63% for male jobs (Figure 2), demonstrating a considerable gender bias for female jobs. Figure 1: Stereotype held by ChatGPT 3.5 in percentage for stereotypically female-dominated professions (red) and male-dominated professions (blue) when repeated for 10 days. Figure 2: Mean stereotype held by ChatGPT 3.5 in percentage for stereotypically female-dominated professions (red) and male-dominated professions (blue) for prompt repeated for 10 days.  The error bars represent standard deviation of the mean. A repeated measures ANOVA was administered to find if ChatGPT responses in female vs. male-dominated professions upheld the stereotype across 10 days. The statistical test showed that gender bias in ChatGPT responses significantly (F = 4.64; p <0.005), indicating that gender stereotyping of female and male-dominated professions differed dramatically across days. Figure 1 shows the variation (highest 81% to lowest 45%) in the percentage of stereotypes held for male jobs across 10 days. Post-hoc tests following Bonferroni corrections further showed how stereotypes in ChatGPT responses differed across days. For some days, like days 2, 4, or 8 (Figure 1), gender bias in ChatGPT responses for male-dominated jobs was as gender biassed as those for female-dominated jobs (p > 0.005), while on other days (days 3, 7, or 10), the responses were significantly less gender-biassed than female jobs (p < 0.005). Figure 3 below shows stereotypes held in percentage by ChatGPT for individual professions across 10 days. Figure 4 shows the distributions of pronouns (he, she, or they) assigned for different professions across 10 days. Figure 3: Stereotype held by ChatGPT 3.5 in percentage for individual stereotypically female-dominated (red) and male-dominated professions (blue). Figure 4: Percentage distribution of gender pronouns - He (blue), She (red) and They (grey) assigned by ChatGPT 3.5 across 11 stereotypically male-dominated professions As seen in Figure 3, all 11 stereotypically female-dominated professions were consistently assigned to females, and the pronoun she/her was used. On the other hand, of the 11 typically male-dominated professions, only two professions—cab driver and construction worker—were consistently considered as professions for males (Figure 3) and were assigned masculine pronouns “he/him “(Figure 4) by ChatGPT for all 10 days, while financial analyst and sales manager were considered more gender-neutral jobs and mostly assigned the pronoun “they.” Notice in Figure 3 that for stereotypically male-dominated jobs, gender bias was highest for professions that require more manual labour skills and are often referred to as “blue-collared jobs like a construction worker, cab driver, or electrician, and bias reduced and reversed as the job shifted to professions that need advanced education like CEO and civil engineer. Discussion The study explored the presence and repeatability of occupational-related gender bias in ChatGPT 3.5-generated responses. The present study showed that even though ChatGPT responses have an undeniable gender bias for stereotypically female-dominated jobs, the gender bias for male-dominated jobs varied when repeated across 10 days. A trend of strong maintenance of gender bias in female jobs but a variable, sometimes reversible gender bias for male jobs has been reported by Spillner (2024). This may reflect the current societal trend where it is easier and more acceptable for the female population to make their way into male-dominated fields than for males to seek stereotypically female jobs. For example, it is more acceptable for females to become firefighters and CEOs than for males to become elementary teachers, caregivers, or librarians. The current findings emphasise how the stereotypes and gender bias upheld by society are further perpetuated by the ChatGPT. Moreover, the shifting of the gender bias from male to female in the stereotypically male jobs was seen more for the professions that need advanced education, like CEO and civil engineer, than professions that require more manual labour skills, like a construction worker, cab driver, or electrician. Similar findings were reported by Spillner (2024). The study showed that the male gender bias remained for stereotypically “blue-collared” male jobs, while the bias reversed and female characters were assigned to the “white-collared” jobs. The study’s author attributes the bias reversal to a possible effect of correction and sometimes overcorrection of gender bias in language models triggered by awareness and human feedback. It was of interest to see if ChatGPT gender bias is maintained or changes when repeated over time for female or male-dominated jobs. The same prompt for each profession was repeated in new sessions for 10 days to strengthen the accuracy of the response and account for any randomness that would influence a single data point. It was interesting to see that gender bias for female jobs selected in this study was 100% repeatable. However, gender bias for male jobs varied across 10 days. Some days the gender bias in the ChatGPT responses between male and female jobs was comparable, and some days there was significantly reduced bias for male jobs compared to female jobs. This finding brings attention to the variability in ChatGPT responses and the need to exercise caution when interpreting the findings based on a single ChatGPT response. Conclusion Generative AI like ChatGPT is a powerful tool that has a lot of potential to enhance all walks of our lives. Moreover, the influence of such generative AI tools is only going to increase exponentially in the future. Therefore, it is important to understand the role of ChatGPT in perpetuating gender bias in our society. In our present study, the consistency of the gender bias in ChatGPT outputs, if present, was explored by studying multiple iterations of the same prompt over a period of time. Our study concludes that outputs of ChatGPT behave differently for stereotypically male-dominated jobs than female-dominated jobs. Our findings consistently show that there is an undeniable bias for female jobs, while bias for male jobs varies on different days. The study throws light on the importance of using multiple responses rather than a single data point while interpreting results from large language models like ChatGPT. Further research is needed to understand the repeatability and variability in AI tools like ChatGPT and extend these findings in interpreting and correcting for the gender bias in these tools. References Babaei, Golnoosh, David Banks, Costanza Bosone, Paolo Giudici, and Yunhong Shan. "Is ChatGPT More Biased Than You?." Harvard Data Science Review  (2024). https://doi.org/10.1162/99608f92.2781452d   Business News Daily. "Gendered Jobs Are on the Decline, But Stereotypes Remain." Business News Daily , October 19, 2023.   https://www.businessnewsdaily.com/10085-male-female-dominated-jobs.html.   Busker, Tony, Sunil Choenni, and Mortaza Shoae Bargh. "Stereotypes in ChatGPT: an empirical study." In Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance , pp. 24-32. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1145/3614321.3614325   Funk, Paul F., Cosima C. Hoch, Samuel Knoedler, Leonard Knoedler, Sebastian Cotofana, Giuseppe Sofo, Ali Bashiri Dezfouli, Barbara Wollenberg, Orlando Guntinas-Lichius, and Michael Alfertshofer. "ChatGPT’s response consistency: A study on repeated queries of medical examination questions." 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Author: Rachana R What is epigenetics? Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence — a change in phenotype without a change in genotype — which in turn affects how cells read the genes.The term “epigenetics” came into general use in the early 1940s, when British embryologist Conard Waddington used it to describe the interactions between genes and gene products, which direct development and give rise to an organism’s phenotype. "Epi-"means ‘on or above’ in Greek,and "epigenetic" describes factors beyond the genetic code. Epigenetic changes are modifications to DNA that regulate whether genes are turned on or off.Epigenetic change can have more damaging effects that can result in diseases like cancer. At least three systems including DNA methylation, histone modification and non-coding RNA associated gene silencing are currently considered to initiate and sustain epigenetic change.New and ongoing research is continuously uncovering the role of epigenetics in a variety of human disorders and fatal diseases. What is epigenome? Epigenome is all the genes plus everything that regulates the usage of those genes. An epigenome changes over time. It’s both advantageous and disadvantageous. It’s advantageous that things like nutritious food, exercise and manageable stress can result in epigenetic changes that can promote health. But other factors like processed foods, smoking and lots of stress can cause epigenetic changes that can harm health. The History of Epigenetic Research During the 1990s there became a renewed interest in genetic assimilation. This led to elucidation of the molecular basis of Conrad Waddington’s observations in which environmental stress caused genetic assimilation of certain phenotypic characteristics in Drosophila fruit flies. Since then, research efforts have been focused on unraveling the epigenetic mechanisms related to these types of changes. Currently, DNA methylation is one of the most broadly studied and well-characterized epigenetic modifications dating back to studies done by Griffith and Mahler in 1969 which suggested that DNA methylation may be important in long term memory function. Types of epigenetic modifications The principal type of epigenetic modification that is understood is methylation.Methylation can be transient and can change rapidly during the life span of a cell or organism.The specific location of a given chemical modification is also very important.Other largely permanent chemical modifications also play a role; these include histone acetylation,ubiquitination and phosphorylation. Epigenetic inheritance It is evident that at least some epigenetic modifications are heritable, passed from parents to their offspring in a phenomenon that is generally referred to as epigenetic inheritance or passed down through multiple generations via transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The mechanism by which epigenetic information is inherited is unclear; however, it is known that this information, because it is not captured in the DNA sequence, is not passed on by the same mechanism as that used for typical genetic information. What are the diseases linked to epigenetics? Aging Diseases associated with aging. Disorders affecting the neurological system(including syndromes which affect intellectual ability) Cancer Asthma Autoimmune diseases Impact of epigenetics on biomedicine From years of research, researchers have recognized that the epigenome influences a wide range of biomedical conditions. This new perception has opened the door to a deeper understanding of normal and abnormal biological processes and has offered the possibility of novel interventions that might prevent certain diseases. Researchers have understood that epigenetic mechanisms play a key role in defining the “potentiality” of stem cells. As those mechanisms become clearer, it may become possible to intervene and effectively alter the developmental state and even the tissue type of given cells. Compared to other areas of study, epigenetics is still fairly new. And there’s a lot yet to be discovered.Scientists continue to explore the relationship between the genome and the chemical compounds that modify it. In particular, they are studying the effects that epigenetic modifications and errors have on gene function, protein production, and human health. References : 1.What is epigenetics. 2017. “Epigenetics: Fundamentals, History, and Examples | What Is Epigenetics?” What Is Epigenetics? 2017. https://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/. 2.MedlinePlus. 2021. “What Is Epigenetics?” Medlineplus.gov. June 11, 2021. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/howgeneswork/epigenome/. 3.Rogers, Kara, and Judith L Fridovich-Keil. 2018. “Epigenetics | Definition, Inheritance, & Disease.” In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/epigenetics. 4.“What Is Epigenetics?” n.d. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/epigenetics.

Author: Asal Hajimohammadi Rayeni